OSHA :: essays research papers

The OSH Act gave OSHA the dresser to come into work places and inspect facilities for health and safety risks. Due to shortages in personnel, OSHA inspects strokings and safety complaints that are filed, and those facilities that have a high volume of accident rates. If an individual state has an approved safety and health enforcement plan, than they may be let off from yearly limited reviews by OSHA and have their own state personnel conduct the inspections. The Act sets a supreme penalty for safety and health violations, but OSHA has the authority to calculate fines. If an industry objects to the citation or fines, they can go before the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission. OSHA has been criticized on both ends, by industries for universe too strict, and by unions for not being strict enough. In the 1980s, OSHA had instituted a policy that would exempt some workplaces from a complete inspection if they had a commence than average injury rate. However, that poli cy was abandoned when an employee died from a workplace that OSHA had not fully inspected. OSHA has implemented new procedures that have set higher penalties and increased the maximum fine for all types of infractions.OSHA may inspect a workplace at anytime. It can be a programmed inspection that was scheduled in advance, or an unprogrammed inspection that was unplanned which resulted from a workplace may be in violation of standards. Unprogrammed inspections usually have priority over scheduled ones. Programmed inspections are usually conducted at high-hazard workplaces, those that have a history of OSHA citations for serious health violations. Congress did provide for special exemptions from programmed OSHA inspections. These exemptions apply to small business that felt they were being subjected to many indefensible inspections. This provision does not completely exempt them from OSHA visiting the workplace to investigate complaints, injuries, or provide assistance. Some workplac es that have a lower than average accident rates can fall under the voluntary protection program. They are still subject to OSHA inspections if complaints are received or if an incident occurs. OSHA usually does not notify a workplace that they will be inspecting.

jackson pollock :: essays research papers

Paul Jackson pollock was born January 28, 1912, in Cody, Wyoming. He grew up in Arizona and California and in 1928 began to deal painting at the Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles. In the fall of 1930, Pollock moved to New York and examine under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League. Benton encouraged him throughout the succeeding decade. By the early 1930s, Pollock knew and admired the murals of Jos Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera. Although he traveled wide throughout the United States during the 1930s, much of Pollocks time was spent in New York, where he settled permanently in 1934 and worked on the WPA federal official Art Project from 1935 to 1942. In 1936, he worked in David Alfaro Siqueiross experimental workshop in New York. Pollocks starting time solo introduce was held at Peggy Guggenheims Art of This snow gallery, New York, in 1943. Guggenheim gave him a contract that lasted through 1947, permitting him to devote all his time to painting. Prior to 1947, P ollocks work reflected the influence of Pablo Picasso and Surrealism more. During the early 1940s, he contributed paintings to several exhibitions of Surrealist and abstract art, including Natural, Insane, Surrealist Art at Art of This Century in 1943, and Abstract and Surrealist Art in America, form by Sidney Janis at the Mortimer Brandt Gallery, New York, in 1944. From the fall of 1945, when artist Lee Krasner and Pollock were married, they lived in the Springs, East Hampton, New York. In 1952, Pollocks first solo show in genus Paris opened at the Studio Paul Facchetti and his first retrospective was organized by Clement Greenberg at Bennington College, Bennington, Vermont.capital of Mississippi pollock essays research papers Paul Jackson Pollock was born January 28, 1912, in Cody, Wyoming. He grew up in Arizona and California and in 1928 began to study painting at the Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles. In the fall of 1930, Pollock moved to New York and studied under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League. Benton encouraged him throughout the succeeding decade. By the early 1930s, Pollock knew and admired the murals of Jos Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera. Although he traveled widely throughout the United States during the 1930s, much of Pollocks time was spent in New York, where he settled permanently in 1934 and worked on the WPA Federal Art Project from 1935 to 1942. In 1936, he worked in David Alfaro Siqueiross experimental workshop in New York. Pollocks first solo show was held at Peggy Guggenheims Art of This Century gallery, New York, in 1943. Guggenheim gave him a contract that lasted through 1947, permitting him to devote all his time to painting. Prior to 1947, Pollocks work reflected the influence of Pablo Picasso and Surrealism more. During the early 1940s, he contributed paintings to several exhibitions of Surrealist and abstract art, including Natural, Insane, Surrealist Art at Art of This Century in 1943, and Abstract and Surreal ist Art in America, organized by Sidney Janis at the Mortimer Brandt Gallery, New York, in 1944. From the fall of 1945, when artist Lee Krasner and Pollock were married, they lived in the Springs, East Hampton, New York. In 1952, Pollocks first solo show in Paris opened at the Studio Paul Facchetti and his first retrospective was organized by Clement Greenberg at Bennington College, Bennington, Vermont.

Free Essays - To Kill a Mockingbird - What is a Classic? :: Free Essay Writer

What is a classic?  One definition given by the dictionary is having lasting significance or worth enduring.  When examined closely we can discover what learns the novel unique and memorable.  There are many important messages in Harper Lees To Kill A Mockingbird, which make it memorable to the reader.  The main message in this novel is about racism, how people around you, not just parents have a strong influence on you when you are growing up, and how rumors and misjudging can make a person look bad.  Judging other people without knowledge of the facts is also a common occurrence.    closely the whole last half of the book is about racism.  The attitude of the whole town is that Tom Robinson, because he is black and,all Negroes lie,all Negroes are fundamentally immoral beings,all Negro men are not to be trusted around our women(Lee 207), will be found sheepish regardless of how approximate a case Atticus makes for him.  There was substantial am ount of evidence that suggests his innocence.  Even the prosecutions two witnesses stories contradicted each other.  The jury did not give a guilty verdict it gave a racist verdict.  Not a verdict based on fact, but a verdict based on the color of a mans skin.  This is important because the author was not making this racism up it was what it was like in those times.  She is trying to show how ignorant and blind people can be just because of differences between them, as well as how society treats racial minorities. During the book Scout and Jem are at an age were people around them greatly affect their thoughts, views and ideas about the world.  Although Atticus tried to raise them to treat Negroes as equals, people around them affected their views on them.  A good slip is when dill questioned the seemingly rude way which Mr. Gilmer treated Tom Robinson.  Scout replied by saying, after all hes just a Negro.  (Lee 201).  She believes it to be acceptable.  This is not something her father erect in her head but people in her town.  The same also happens in the black community.  When Atticus asks Calpurnia to watch his children for him while he is out, Calpurnia accepts and takes the children with her to perform, a church for black people.  When she arrives with the children, they are greeted kindly except by a few people.  These people use the same reason as in the last example as to why they should not be there, because they are white.

Helen Tamiris Biography Essay -- essays research papers

On April 24, 1903, one of the founders of American modern dance was born to parents who emigrated from Russia. Helen Tamiris, originally Helen Becker, grew up in New York, New York on the Lower East Side. In her lifetime, she danced, choreographed, and helped initiate modern dance. Later in her life, she moved to the Great White Way, otherwise cognise as Broadway, to choreograph many shows.In 1911, or at the age of eight, Ms. Tamiris began studying dance at the Henry Street Settlement with Irene Lewisohn. After that she examine with the childrens chorus at the Metropolitan Opera Company, where she learned Italian ballet techniques. Although she studied strict ballet techniques, she began to study modern dance at the Neighborhood Playhouse. She also studied natural leaping but soon grew restless of it thus, she quickly left the studios to develop her own sort of dance.Tamiris spent a few years making minor nightclub appearances and dancing in stage shows at movie theaters. But in 1922, she left America to check in South Africa with the Bracale Opera Company, where she was exposed to international dance forms. When she returned to America, she abandoned her former Italian ballet training and studied Russian ballet technique. She appeared dancing in a few shows but soon realized she just was not getting what she wanted. Tamiris took the next year off to develop her own way of concert dancing.&nb...

Rousseau and Duty to the State Essay -- Philosophy

It is generally agreed that the great philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the artistic productionist Jacques-Louis David had played a great enjoyment in serving and supporting the French Revolution, in addition to, showing their devotion to their subject and explore the notion of duty to the state each i by his own special way. The great philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau had inspired the revolution by his argument and ideas that was based on Reason. He played a great intention in exploring the notion of duty to the state by providing the public with his argument in the social contract,which was frequently quoted and referred to during the early stages of the Revolution. The social contract was concerned to bring in whether or not the authority of the state is legitimate. His fundamental problem is to find a way in which we can live in a state and yet remain as free as before. He explained that, this only could be achieved if the general will of the individual always coi ncide with the will of the state. Therefore, he had recourse to the concept of the general will, which is defined as the general will of a group taken as a whole rather than as a collection of individuals. He tried to convince us of this by describing the difference between the state of nature and the civil state, and in effect, asking which we judge is better. To be in the state of nature, would be to act on appetite and so be slavish and bad. To be in the civil state, is to act fit to reason and so be master and good. We ought constantly to bless the moment that we moved in to the civil state because this gives us the chance to be noble and good .So,says Rousseau it is in each of our interests to choose the general will .Therefore, if we think according t... ... and dimmed color of Brutus giving a broad tonal range,this tends to modify the impact of dramatic contrast. It seems that the formal elements of this painting are conspiring to focus our attention toward the g rieved women,and to show us how brave is Brutus decision,that he unconstipated neglect his familys sorrow and even turn his back away from his sons bodies .He commit his decision unhesitatingly,raising the voice of duty to the state over everything else even his own flesh and blood . Finally, we can argue and detect a lots of similarities between the ways in which Rousseau and David did explore the notion of duty to the state .Both of them believed in the great role of philosophy and art in educating the public, therefore,they used their profession successfully to express their devotion to state and serve their country,each one by his own way .

Rousseau and Duty to the State Essay -- Philosophy

It is generally agreed that the large(p) philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the artist Jacques-Louis David had played a striking role in serving and supporting the French Revolution, in addition to, showing their devotion to their state and explore the notion of duty to the state to each one one by his own special way. The great philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau had inspired the revolution by his argument and ideas that was based on Reason. He played a great role in exploring the notion of duty to the state by providing the public with his argument in the social contr issue,which was frequently quoted and referred to during the early stages of the Revolution. The social contract was bear on to establish whether or not the authority of the state is legitimate. His fundamental problem is to find a way in which we send packing live in a state and yet remain as free as before. He explained that, this only could be achieved if the general leave alone of the individual alway s coincide with the will of the state. Therefore, he had recourse to the concept of the general will, which is defined as the general will of a group taken as a whole quite than as a collection of individuals. He tried to convince us of this by describing the difference between the state of nature and the civil state, and in effect, request which we think is better. To be in the state of nature, would be to act on appetite and so be slavish and bad. To be in the civil state, is to act according to reason and so be noble and good. We ought constantly to bless the moment that we moved in to the civil state because this gives us the chance to be noble and good .So,says Rousseau it is in each of our interests to choose the general will .Therefore, if we think according t... ... and dimmed color of Brutus giving a broad tonic range,this tends to sharpen the impact of dramatic contrast. It seems that the formal elements of this painting are conspiring to focus our attention tow ard the grieved women,and to show us how brave is Brutus decision,that he even neglect his familys tribulation and even turn his back away from his sons bodies .He commit his decision unhesitatingly,raising the voice of duty to the state over everything else even his own flesh and blood . Finally, we can conclude and detect a lots of similarities between the ways in which Rousseau and David did explore the notion of duty to the state .Both of them believed in the great role of ism and art in educating the public, therefore,they used their profession successfully to express their devotion to state and serve their country,each one by his own way .

Never Giving Up

It has been said that feeling can never be simple machineried out and truly lived to its fullest unless at that place has been some sort of suffering and pain. Mistakes are to be learned from, and a hard past can only result in a stronger present. though many might find themselves alone in their misery the truth is they are not, everyone has struggles. We all have our ups and downs, but it is how we react to them that truly matters. Life is life and no matter what, giving up on lifelong dreams and aspirations because of a few bumps in the road should never be an option. It isnt where you come from its where your going that counts, tell a very wise woman by the name of Ella Fitzgerald. This may be hard to believe but even people with great conquest like Ella Fitzgerald, can come from a profuse background. Before her career took off, this superstar Jazz singer known as the first lady of pains was yet another troubled teen forced to cope with the early separation of her parents. From there things only got worse for Ella and in 1993, her mother died from injuries she had suffered from a car accident.It was not long ahead tragedy struck Ellas life once again, this time she mourned the loss of her mothers boyfriend and her half sisters father. From there it was all down pitcher for this sixteen year old and it was not long before she found herself in trouble with the law. You may be disappointed if you fail but your destine if you dont try. These words spoken by Beverly Sills had to have somehow found their way into Ellas head because no matter what came her way, she did not give up. With a little patience, Ella was on to launching one of the largest harmony careers in the business. Perfection is boring, if a face doesnt have a mistake its nothing, stated Kevyn Aucoin. Nowadays, the success of those emerging from a troubled past is greater than ever. After all, who could forget American Idol winner Fantasia Barrinos shocking past confessions in her enorm ously famous autobiography, The Fantasia Barrino Story Life is not a Fairy Tale? Fantasias traumatizing childhood seemed to be weaved with stories of pain, lies, and betrayal everywhere she turned. At an early age, Fantasia was a victim of rape and divorce. She pursued a music career in her small town of North Carolina but found that she just did not tand out from among the other teens. With low self-esteem, it was not long before Fantasia fell into the wrong crowd and found herself a seventeen-year-old, pregnant, illiterate, high school drop out. Fantasia faced a lot of criticism when she was considered for Americas idol, but she did not permit that bother her and continued on to become an idol for those who like her have come from a hard background. Like Helen Keller once said, No Pessimist ever sight the secret of the stars or sailed to an unchartered land. Fantasia Barrino has proven that life is not a Fairy Tale but you can sure make it one.It is not just celebrities that c an overcome a troubled past and live up to their potential it is also people just like us. Who knows, the big shot attorney next door could have been the one bullied in school and told time and time again that he was not good enough. It is all about might and perseverance, believe despite the odds and what others say. To find success in the outside world you must first find it in yourself. In Ella Fitzgeralds own words, plainly dont give up trying to do what you really want to do. Where there is love and inspiration, I dont think you can go wrong.

Economic development Essay

Economic instruction and sparing growing be both indicators of the economic position of the country. Economic emersion is the growth in gross domestic product and economic emergence is related to growth in the standard of living and poverty. As you give the gate see economic growth and economic cultivation are not the same thing, economic breeding is far more than just growth in GDP as it involves indicators that are not purely economically related.However economic growth is an indicator of economic festering save at that place are also some(prenominal) other factors that represent economic victimization. These indicators are life expectancy at ancestry, infant death rate rate, daily calorie supply per capita, adult literacy rate, number of doctors per megabyte people, fair years of schooling, availability of clean water, freedom of press, immunisation rates and levels of discrimination. As you merchant ship see these are generally not economic indicators merely w hen they are combined they form the economic development figure. at that place are fifteen parapets to economic development, the first of these being a omit of physical capital. overlook physical capital is a evidential barrier to the development of a country for several reasons. There is already a shortage of capital that come on leads to little capital being produced this names signifi chiffoniert paradoxs for developing countries. In these countries the income levels are low leading to low nest egg and and so little capital for investiture in capital. This privation of capital furthers the low productivity therefore the occupation remains low.This also leads to a omit of look at for goods and services the low demand means that less needs to be produced therefore less capital needs to be produced. This then forces the country into a cycle of underdevelopment. This consequently creates a barrier for the country to develop. An example of this is in most less develo ped countries where they are in constant times of war and civil unrest. Their capital is un presumee through war making it difficult for the country to produce more capital. besides, Sierra Le integrity, the knowledge domains least developed country, as shown by the human development index, has a GDP per capita of US$159 this creates signifi domiciliatet problems for the scrimping and its development.A escape of human capital is the next barrier to development. This barrier is created through a lack of fostering and training of the race. It also relates to the general heath and wellbeing of the population. If the fag proscribed-force are getting sick then they are unable to work and therefore decreasing the turn over capital. A reliable example of this situation is in South Africa. In South Africa the micro-economic carry on of AIDS is actually serious and is getting worse.Among skilled workers human immunodeficiency virus prevalence is expected to peak between a fifth and a quarter percent by the year 2000, which is consequently depleting the number of skilled workers creating the lack of capital development barrier. These problems are also leading to a rise in insurance bills and the costs of health benefits rise. This therefore diverts regimen savings to concede for health care and as a pass on the availability of currency for investing willing fall. AIDS is predicted to knock 0.3 to 0.4 percent off the annual growth rate. As you can see this is a severe barrier to development in these less developed countries. A outline to this barrier is human alternative development.The next barrier to development is a lack of savings. This also causes low levels of investment collect to the low income leading to low savings. This low level of savings is also cause by several other reasons such as poorly developed financial markets, holding of savings in traditional non-money forms, the purchase of uncalled-for luxury items, cheap family repulse r educing the incentive to save for investment and the general indebtedness of the population. The low incentive to reinvest profits by occupationes also reduces the savings. calculate deficits by the government to study up for the low evaluate revenue are also decreasing the amount being saved. When there is a lack of savings caused by any of these causes it forces the need to borrow form overseas that consequently leads to problems with the balance of payments. An example of lack of savings exists in Nigeria. In Nigeria there are severe problems with their currency. These begin with significant fraud problems also the majority of trading is done with cash in which until recently the currency did not turn over the equivalent of 50 cents.The next problem is that they dont believe in banks, the only use of banks is to exchange foreign currencies for tourists, which leads to a lack of coin for investments. Also, Local traders keep all working capital stuffed in coca jars, as they believe business opportunities will disappear in the time it takes to cod a withdrawal. edges do not allow credit due to the fear of not being rep tutelage. All of these factors contribute to a large barrier to development simply due to a lack of savings. This could be solved through amend the financial system.another(prenominal) barrier to development is a lack of assessation revenue. A lack of taxation creates barriers as it means the government has little finances to use on economic development. The luxuriously unemployment, very low-income levels and difficulties in tax collection cause this lack of tax revenue. The government is then forced to collect tax mainly from customs duties, sales taxes and excises. These taxes can prove to be very inflationary and are also regressive. another(prenominal) problem with these taxes is that they discourage investment and the creation of employment. Nigeria also has a problem with the collection of taxation. Most Nigerians that can af ford to avoid paying taxes, as they believe that their money will be flinched by the corrupt government. This creates severe problems for the country, as there is no money for the government to use in investment to throw out economic development. Improving the financial system will also serve solve this barrier.The next barrier to entry is a lack of infrastructure. Less developed countries rarely entertain a sufficient supply of necessities such as roads, ports, sewerage, power schools or water- facilities etc. The main reason that this infrastructure is not being made is that the government simply cannot raise the funds to finance them due to their lack of taxation revenue. Another reason maybe that the government has chosen to finance defence spending or if they are in time of war, in which most LCDs are. A lack of infrastructure restricts the free flow of goods and services and reduces the productivity of the labour force that further restricts the economic development of the country. In Africa infrastructure is very underdeveloped compared to the other less developed regions. They have 6 phone lines for every 1000 people compared to the average of 54 for other developing regions. Also their power supply is far less than the average of 300kw per 1000 peoples with 80kw this significantly stops their development.In Nigeria there are serious problems with infrastructure causing business uncertainty. Telephones rarely work and the electric comes in periodic vengeful surges. Nigerian firms, foundericularly the state-owned ones due to the lack of taxation, devote little effort into maintaining their infrastructure and it therefore ends up breaking down. Reliable firms are so hard to come by that firms barter contacts well let you share the electricity from our generator if you can help us find spare parts for it. Firms wanting to set up in Nigeria character the problem known locally as BYOI (bring your own infrastructure) this shows how very much of a probl em infrastructure is in Nigeria. A lack of infrastructure could be solved in many ways such as support enterprise, human resource development or improving the financial system.A lack of entrepreneurs is another barrier to economic development. Enterprise is essential in post for development to occur, as it is one of the key factors to production. In the less developed countries there tens to be a lack of entrepreneurs for several reasons. The first of these is the fact that there is a limited opportunity to make a profit, due to the lack of demand. The next reason is that the businesses not easily financed due to the low level of savings. The lack of infrastructure available also distracts these entrepreneurs.Another reason to the lack of entrepreneurs is that cultural beliefs oft place little importance on monetary gain and entrepreneurs are thus given little status. The number of entrepreneurs is also reduced by the lack of education in these countries. The dwell-place reason is that it is risky for an entrepreneur due to the political and economic instability. An example of a lack of entrepreneurs is also in Nigeria as it closely relates to the lack of the infrastructure. The lack of infrastructure adds at least 25 percent onto a firms operating costs if it choses to set up in Nigeria, this is a significant deterrent for firms to set up and should be solved if the county wants to contact economic development. A strategy that could be adopted to help this situation is encouraging enterprise.The next barrier to economic development is a lack of engineering. There are several reasons why these less developed countries are not more technologically advanced. The first reason being that most new applied science will involve some investment in capital that is lacking in these less developed countries. Also another problem is that the new technology will need skilled labour to operate it but skilled labour is also of shortage in a LCD. The next reason is tha t companies dont really want to adopt labour saving technology when they already have cheap labour and there are high unemployment rates.The final reason that there is a lack of technology is that new technology is used to facilitate the fall uponment of economies of scale and the small markets in LCDs reduce the incentive to mass-produce. The governments however, have managed to encourage technology into these LCDs and most currently use modern technology that compliments the labour so workers maintain their jobs. A lot of the modern technology used in these counties is generally used in the foreign owned industries where they mass-produce in lodge to export to advanced markets.Over population and rapid population growth is another factor that causes a barrier to development. In these less developed countries the birth rates are often five times higher(prenominal) than in the more developed countries. The advances of medicine have also caused a fall in the deaths, which leads to a higher population growth. The growth of these countries is generally around 2 percent and their growth is usually below this figure, which therefore worsens the situation, and the real GNP per capita often falls. In the more advanced countries they generally have population growth of around 0.5 percent and their economic growth will usually be higher than that.This is where the widening gap occurs pushing less developed countries further away from more advanced countries. This high growth of the population also has the effect of augment the labour force, but as there is little demand for labour the unemployment rate will tend to rise. Also, most of this population is below 15 or in a higher place 65 meaning they are unable to contribute o production but still need things such as food, water, clothing and shelter. This creates a problem known as dependance burden making development even harder. Governments in these LDCs fight a tough battle with a rapid growing population and ar e always trying to slow this rate but they face several problems such as poor education, communication, lack of contraception and cultural attitudes.Africa is currently the fastest growing of all the developing regions with a growth rate of 3 percent over the past hug drug but with this high growth rate comes several associated problems. Africa has one doctor for every 20,000 people compared to an average 5000 people in developing countries and its infant mortality rate is the highest at 96 per thousand births almost double the developing countries average. Africans also have a life expectancy of 52 years where the average for developing countries is 64. As you can see that the effects of a high population are not beneficial to a developing country. This barrier to development can be solved with the population control strategy.The next barrier to development is inflation. Inflation in these countries is caused by the scare amounts of goods and services relative to the high populati on consequently causing demand pull inflation. The domestic supply is unable to match the domestic demand. The inflation rates in many of these countries gets above 200 percent compared to that of around 5 percent in most advanced countries. This high inflation has many unwanted effects such as decreased living standards and a simplification in real income, it also tends to redistribute the income from the poor to the wealthy therefore increasing the income inequality that already exists.A high inflation rate also causes the investment of non-productive assets such as antiques or gold, this money is therefore taken out of the economy reducing the funds available for investment. These high inflation rates also cause a decline in the competitiveness of exporters and import competing firms that therefore leads to an increase in the countries current account deficit. Another effect that inflation will lead to is a falling exchange rate, which if the country has a large foreign debt wi ll make it even harder to pay. Inflation is very high in most of the African countries and causes severe problems to their economy and development progress.Balance of payments problems is also another barrier to development of these less developed countries. The majority of LCDs have problems with their external balance as the little income they do earn is used on imports and used to pay off interest on their foreign debts. As these countries are in deficit they are continually forced to borrow from overseas to finance their payments worsening their current account deficit even more. many an(prenominal) of these countries are also suffering from worsening terms of trade that also decreases their export revenue and thus further worsening their balance of payments. The WTO worldwide reduction of tariffs will help to assist this but government policies need to be implemented to disadvantageously boost export revenue and turn the consumers away from imports. The strategy to help the b alance of payments is import replacement.The next barrier to development that LCDs face is a depletion of their instinctive resources. Many of these countries are highly dependent on one major export to create export revenue, create growth, employment and income and the reduction in the current account deficit. This creates problems as they may deplete natural resources without considering future production. This reduces the potential for further future development and growth. In Mauritius, they have percipient 25 percent of their forests in the last 19 years purely for export. This causes massive environmental effects and also is a serious concern, as when the resources reap out the countrys economy will fail to stay afloat. This is the same in many less developed countries including many African counties and their dependency on oil. It can be helped with export development to have a wider range of exports and less dependency on one major export.Another significant barrier to ec onomic development in these less developed countries is corruption and poor administration by the government. Corruption is a very common problem in LDCs. The problem associated with this is that aid and government revenue is not all used in promoting growth, corrupt leaders and government officials take most of it. When a government is corrupt it causes most of their aid to be withdrawn forcing them to see the light their political structures.This withdrawal of overseas assistance causes depletions in general living standards of the country. Another problem with these governments is that they know little or nothing about economics. These leads to several problems including poor administration and efficiency these lead to a poor ability to tug development. An example of this is in Nigeria where it has been estimated that in the last twenty years over two billion dollars of oil revenue from the country has been embezzled. This is mainly due to their last dictator who ordered the Ni gerian Central Bank to deposit 15 million dollars a day into his own Swiss bank account. This works out to twenty percent of GDP and when you take into consideration that their NFD is over 40 percent of GDP, the country is not left with much money. A strategy that has been say into place for this specific barrier is the refusal to lend money to Nigeria from IMF.Natural disasters are another barrier to development in less developed countries. The effects of natural disasters such as floods or droughts have a much greater impact on less developed countries compared to that of advanced countries. Most LCDs are prone to these natural disasters, which is a significant factor to their underdevelopment. In India they have times of severe droughts and flooding where 80 million people were affected. This has mischievously decreased their agriculture production and is consequently creating a barrier to their development. There is not much that can be done about natural disasters but do adjus t to them and to adopt new ways to cope with them.Another significant factor preventing the development of less developed countries is war and civil unrest. Many LCDs are in constant war and civil unrest, this causes several problems with development. The first of these problems is that entrepreneurs are discouraged by the countries instability also alpha infrastructure is destroyed and governments spend their little taxation revenue on maintaining order or producing weapons. Economies in war torn countries are unlikely to be operating at full capacity making it hard for development to occur. In Rwanda civil wars in the nineties have claimed the lives of almost 1,000,000 Rwandans. Most of the aid to the country was invested in weaponry and therefore not used in promoting economic development, as it should have been. This is how civil wars can create barriers to development. The only solving to this is to end the wars and focus the spending into promoting economic development.The f inal barrier to development is a lack of press freedom. Press freedom involves the exchange of ideas, criticism of government and increased awareness of world events and developments. This is something that most LCDs do not have and therefore their economic development is limited. In Mexico the government allowed Televisa to have a monopoly in the television market if they didnt play any anti-government shows and supported the government. In the eighties journalists were killed by the police in Mexico City if they published any anti-government articles. This is serious problem in these less developed countries and is usually the result of government corruption.The first strategy to promote economic development in these less developed countries is export development. This strategy involves assisting those producers who export to overseas markets. An increase in export development will earn foreign exchange and create unemployment and income and also help to solve problems with the b alance of payments.The next strategy to promoting development is import replacement. Import replacement involves the shifting of demand away from imports and towards the domestically produced products. This can be done in several ways including the induction of tariffs on imports making them more expensive relative to the domestic product. This also encourages foreign investment as the foreign firms wish to have the same protection. Assisting domestic producers financially is another way of promoting this economic development, by subsidising and offering tax incentives to local producers it will increase their competitiveness with imports by the lower costs of production. However, replacing imports is only a short-term solution and therefore policies promoting long-term development must be applied.Human resource development is the next strategy to development. This development involves improving the size of the labour force and also the skills of the labour force. The labour force c an be increased through improved health care and skills can be attained through things such as training and education. In Nigeria the military man Bank is currently funding an $80 million project into their education as well as building a better and more logical water supply. Also In Malaysia education investment has been amongst their highest priorities for decades, they have spent $731 million on improving their education levels to the level they are currently atAnother way to promote economic development in these less developed countries is through encouraging enterprise. In most LDCs there is a lack of entrepreneurs, in order to increase the quantity there are several solutions such as improving management and leadership training and tax incentives, subsidies and free loans. Cuba has introduced a group of people called the cuentapropistas, 170,000 entrepreneurs marking the arrival of a new business sector in the islands socialist economy. They account for 8% of the labour forc e and manage to put food on the table for one in ten Cubans. These new small businesses have been a result of reduced subsidies to state enterprises, increased foreign investment, and introduction of incentives in the agricultural sector and the legalisation of dealings in foreign currency. This has already had positive signs on the Cuban economy with growth in 1998 at 8 percent some 31percent higher than two years previous.Population control is another strategy to economic development. Rapid population growth is unwanted as it creates problems such as inflation and scarcity and therefore more poverty. There are push-down store of methods that can be put into place to slow population growth. Some of these methods include maximum children policy such as Chinas one child policy and free supplies of contraception. The Grameen bank is another contributor to helping population control in Bangladesh. The bank issue loans to woman and as part of the conditions to borrowing the money they must agree to have small families. This has proved to be a successful program all across the world and has helped to promote the small-scale development of many less developed countries.The next strategy to promote economic development is increasing the agricultural productivity. Agriculture is usually a major sector in the less developed countries and thus improving its productivity will significantly promote development. Improving the agriculture productivity can be done in many ways. Some of these include merging small farms to create larger more efficient ones and encouraging owner operators to increase the incentive to improve productivity there also several other ways in which these countries can improve their agricultural productivity. With 75 percent of the population living in rural areas, improving the efficiency of Indias agriculture is the key to attaining high growth and reducing poverty.Accelerating rural development and poverty reduction requires cutting spending on i nput subsidies investing in rural infrastructure providing more effective rural services, especially to the poor and socially excluded improving management of water, forests, and other natural resources liberalizing the rural economy, including the rural financial system. In the heart of Indias poorest region, the Bihar Plateau Development Project is increasing access to much-needed irrigation and just drinking water by tribal communities and raising their incomes through the diversification of rural livelihoods. The project aims to reach 4.5 million people through a mix of institutional mechanisms, including water and sanitation committees, water user associations, and income generation schemes, all aiming to transfer skills and enhance peoples capabilities so that the benefits may be carry on once the project ends. This is one way in which India is proving to increase its agricultural productivity.Another strategy to promoting economic development is by adopting intermediate te chnology. If a less developed country invested in new technology it may be forgiving employment possibilities, as most new technology is very labour intensive, this will consequently lead to a fall in employment. As these countries have an abundance of labour it is much easier, cost effective and better for the economy if they use intermediate technology that still requires high levels of labour. An example of this is Fred Hollows, Hollows uses local resources to create employment income and economic growth through the training of people to actualize the medical tasks and also employment in the factories where the lens are created.The final strategy to promote economic development is to improve the financial system. In these economies there is a lack of savings and an insufficient financial system, this creates major barriers to development. Thus policies need to be adopted to improve this situation that promote growth and employment without generating high levels of inflation. The human race Banks Executive Board approved a $506 million loan to support financial sector modification and reform in Colombia. The loan is part of a revised World Bank strategy for Colombia that includes intensified lending to help the country promote peace, ease the impact of the recession on the poor, and rebuild after their earthquake. It is also part of a $1.4 billion package to help bolster Colombias economy. This financial sector adjustment loan reflects the World Banks confidence in Colombias wide-ranging reform strategy, which is critical to its effort to overcome the recession, said Andres Solimano, director of the Banks program in Colombia.The financing of many of these strategies is usually funded through institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund institutions. The World Bank is a major force behind the development of less developed countries as it gives issues discounted loans to most of these countries. Another way that these countries ca n fund their development is through overseas aid. The are large amounts of money flowing out of the developed countries from governments and other aid organizations as aid into the less developed countries hoping to achieve economic development. For all of these less developed countries to achieve economic development, an effort from all developed countries with aid and advice must be contributed, but until then the world will not have any chance of abolishing poverty.References IFC Building the private sector in Africa The Economist January 15th 2000 survey Nigeria World bank Rwanda development project The Economist May 27th Aids impact in South Africa World Bank Cubas Cuentapropistas World Bank Indias development The Grameen Bank Economic Development in Bangladesh The Economist May 27th Growth is good The Economist Feb 22nd Televista World Bank press release, eleventh June 1998

Apollo vs. Green Arrow

Apollo and Green Arrow/ Oliver Queen When I first knowledge equal to(p) ab turn up the Greek theology Apollo in my Classical Mythology class, he reminded me of Oliver Queen. Oliver Queen is a character from one of my favorite television immortalise called Smallville. He transmittable a big industrial empire from his parents when they passed away. He was a playboy who did not care to give back to the confederation and only did what pleases him. One daylight, when Oliver was out on his boat, he was pushed overboard into the sea by an employee. After being marooned on an island, he learned to hunt and improved his survival skills.He afterward found a small settlement on the island and saw that some of the islanders were cruelly disposed of in a nearby well. It shocked him and he became rivet on avenging their deaths. He resorted to making his own weapons and pursued the escaping men in the boats, who turned out to be drug dealers. His stamina and skills helped him strike them, and was later able to turn them over to the police. Oliver had his first taste of crime fighting then. He vowed to change the world for the better with the resources he had. He became a vigilante under(a) the name of Green Arrow. Comic Vine) I think that Oliver Queen and Apollo seems so alike yet different at the same time. I rely that they will make a great comparison to each other. The very first and obvious similarity between Apollo and Oliver is that they are both skillful archers. Apollo is the god of Archery. When Apollo was still an infant, he claimed that the bow was his. (Mayerson 118) Oliver created his vigilante persona based on his skill and passion for arrows and bows. When he was marooned on an island, he improved his already talented archery skills.He made his own makeshift bow and arrows and used them to hunt to eat. With his refined archery skills, he later tracked down the drug dealers who were escaping in a plane. He managed to gain upper hand by shooting them d own. Olivers vigilante character Green Arrow is considered by even the superhuman members of the referee League to be the greatest archer in the world. (Comic Vine) Oliver himself always said that Green Arrow never misses a target, not even when he was not looking at the target. Apollo and Oliver are to a fault both full of wit and charm.Apollo is the God of Music. According to Mayerson, the infant-god declared that the lyre would be his. He later fall in the other gods in Olympus and played the lyre them. Oliver is besides very charming. In various episodes of Smallville I brace watched, Oliver is often seen offering a glass of wine for a beautiful lady and impressing them with his charming personality. (Smallville) He is also sometimes seen playing the piano, where he intentionally lets people see the soft and refined side of him. Oliver present the kind of personality that is not easily forgettable.When he enters a room, he makes a great impression on everyone with his ch arm and wit. He converses with just round anyone and his conversations are usually laced with humor. Compared to other wealthy billionaires, Oliver has become very down to earth and he does not let his status in society and wealth hinder him from ridding the world of evil. (Appointment in Crime Alley) As very powerful and handsome men, Apollo and Olivers lives are filled with women and their be effd interests are numerous. Unfortunately, their affairs never last or are always cut short by another factor.Philip Mayerson explained in his book of various relationships of Apollo. Apollos first love Castalia changed into a spring of water. His next love Cassandra, a Trojan Princess, was cursed by Apollo himself. Sibyl was granted her wish of living as grand as the grains of sand in her hand, therefore becoming just a voice. Daphne turned into a tree nymph. His wife Coronis was burned to death. While Olivers lovers did not beat brutal endings like Apollos, Oliver still went through va rious women. He was in a relationship with Black Canary when they were working together for the judge League.He later came across Shado, a Japanese assassin who was killing the yakuza, and had an affair with her. Oliver was also seen kissing a girl named Marianne now and then. (Scott McCullars Green Arrow ingathering) Throughout his first appearance in Smallville, Oliver was seen dating Lois Lane, the future wife of Superman. They had differences that cannot be overcome and their relationship ended. After that, Oliver seemed to rekindle with an on-and-off old flame Tess Mercer, who was also Lex Luthors, Olivers enemy, ex-wife. She is also very cunning and self-perseverative.She only cared for herself and fled when Oliver came into trouble. She later came back to be a good friend and support system for the vigilante team. Oliver also had flings with Betsy Braddock and Adrienne Frost. Betsy Braddock was noticed by Oliver because she had psychic abilities. Oliver came across Adrienne Frost because she seemed to have telepathic abilities. (Smallville Season 6 10) Olivers fascination with these two ladies especially reminded me of Apollo and his . Olivers latest and last known relationship is with Chole Sullivan and they have a child together.While there are many similarities between Apollo and Oliver Queen, there are also several(prenominal) differences. Apollo is the God of Prophecy therefore he or his illusionists are prophetic and can know what will happen in the future. While their answers are ambiguous, the oracle or the priests who interpret them still seemed to predict well enough. (Mayerson 124) Among the superheroes, Oliver is one of the few people without any metahuman skills. He compensates it by improving his skills as well as trying to predict and be more aware of possible threats. He does this by using the Watchtower, along with a team of superheroes.The Watchtower is ran by Chloe Sullivan, his then-friend and now-wife. However, the equipment and research is funded by Olivers very own Queen Industries, whose support is very crucial. The Watchtower allowed Olivers Justice League to assess any incoming supernatural problems and patterns, observe happenings in the world, and access almost any paperless trails. (Watchtower) In Classical Mythology in Literature, Art, and Music, Philip Mayerson states that Apollo is a god of Purification, particularly from acts, such as homicide. On the other hand, Oliver does not have a problem with stealing and murdering.It does not necessarily make him a bad man. Oliver decided use his improved archery skills to become a vigilante. This requires him to defeat and overcome opponents who were very similar to the man he used to be. He thwarts greed and corruption from hurting average citizens. He channels a modern day Robin Hood persona and constantly fights for underdogs. Since his days stuck on the island was full of misery, sweat, blood, and desperation, he came to understand the testament to what it takes for someone to answer that wake-up call, change their ways, and fly straight. As straight as an arrow. (Green Arrow) While Apollo and Oliver Queen both went through various relationships and affairs, there is one major difference between them. Apollo dearly loved Coronis but was worried she might not stay faithful him. She did not, and he or his sister Artemis punished her transgression by setting her on fire. Apollo regretted the hasty action, but it was too late. (Mayerson 131) Oliver, on the other hand, was much luckier. After going through many obstacles together as a crime-fighting team, Oliver finally realizes his love for Chloe, who already seems to be in love with him as well.In Warrior/ Super girl, viewers can obviously see how compatible Oliver and Chloe are with each other. It was a beginning of a romance that changed their lives. They stopped hiding their feelings and kept no secrets. This lifted some weight off of Olivers shoulders since he does not have to hide his secret identity as Green Arrow from her either. Unfortunately, their relationship was tested with various situations, such as both of them sacrificing themselves into enemies hands and going utmost away to keep the other one safe. However, they just cannot stand to be apart from each other.During the episode called Fortune, they happily married in the tenth and final season of Smallville television series. Oliver tells her You saved my life, Chloe. Both the myth and the man. (KSite TV) There are many similarities and differences between the Greek god Apollo and the television show character Oliver Queen. Despite their various statuses situations, they both are powerful men, who went through many heartaches and obstacles. They are so different yet so alike. This is why I believe that Apollo and Oliver makes a very good comparison to each other.

Myne Owne Ground Essay

Slavery is an American embarrassment in present sidereal day, African Americans and woman have gained the basic rights given to all American. (3) Slavery existed in every colony in the New World from Canada to the Rio de la Plata. (3) It emerged as a way of buying and selling humans to produce labor call for on the Plantations in the early seventeenth century. However, prior to the full system of knuckle downry, blacks were relatively equal to exsanguines.They were able to own land, make their own money, and live with the same rights as whites. Anthony Johnson is one slave from his era to live a successful life. He started as a slave in Virginia, but later fought to achieve the American Dream. (4) Bought into slavery Anthony seemed to have no control over his future. He was referred to as Antonio a Negro and was purchased to work on the Bennett plantation in the tobacco fields.(8) As every American slave, Anthony had to fight day by day to survive. The poor living conditions wi th no food or water took a toll on his new life in the Americas. Living each day he was exposed to death, cruelty, and starvation. He seemingly had no opportunity of starting a family because of scarcity of woman which gave him no choice other than slavery (9).On March 22, 1622, the Indians of Tidewater Virginia assaulted Edward Bennetts tobacco plantation in Virginia (9). The attack on the plantations killed over ternion hundred and fifty colonists fifty-two were killed at the plantation (9). Anthony Johnson was one of the twelve lucky survivors. He was fortunate enough to gain his freedom after the attack all of the people fled their own way. He was able to start his quest to living the American dream, and later gained the name Anthony Johnson.Anthony Johnson got a fresh start in the new world. He was finally able to start a family, he married a woman named Mary. She was the only female to be living at the Bennetts farm in Warresquioake. They would live together for over forty y ears and have four children. Bennett later became governor of Northampton. When the Johnsons locomote in that respect, Bennett looked after their wakeless and economic interests. (11)In 1640, Johnson and his family gained an estate (11). Their main source of income came from raising cattle and hogs, which helped with the local economy. Anthony later was able to obtain two hundred and fifty land of land for his estates he purchased five headright certificates to help with the land. (11) The land was located on Pungoteague Creek and later had a devastating fire. The fire burned the plantation to the backdrop and Anthony suffered hard times with the lack of money and resources to start the farm again. He petitioned and gained reasoned excuse from paying taxes for his wife and two daughters.The reduction of taxes helped Johnson rebuild his plantation. The jural aspects showed that Mary and her two daughters were equal of white women in Northampton County because of the tax system . All black women and men had to pay taxes, whereas only white men who made an income paid. sporting women were exempt (12).Johnsons life was like that of the white men during this time. He was able to trade with his white neighbors and buy his own slaves to work for him. Casor, a slave under Johnson, pleaded to Robert Parker, a white man, that Johnson was holding him illegally. He took Casor to his tobacco plantation because he was supposedly a freeman. Johnson was enraged because Casor did non have the indenture he claimed to have. He and his family had a meeting and decided to set John Casor free from his plantation (14). On March 8, 1655, Johnson regained the right of slave Casor by suing Robert Parker. He not only took a white man to court, but he also defeated him, declaring Casor Johnsons slave for life (15). Anthony was treated with respect he had the legal documents and his actions were not questioned.Later Johnson would proceed to sell most of his farm and give the rest to his youngest son to help him start a life of his own. Anthony and his wife moved to Maryland as headrights, but they remained free for the rest of their lives. He leased three hundred acres of plantation he later named the land Tonies vinery. (16) After Anthonys death, Mary renegotiated the lease. She was successful and paid the colony taxes and the annual rent each time. The Johnson family was able to live the remainder of their lives as free equals to the white society.In seventeenth century Northampton, a mans place in the chain was dependent partly on wealth and race (45). Because of this system, most blacks were able to gain freedom and prosper (68). Many Northampton documents feature names of black men and women who owned their own land. They were able to have families and provide for the eudaimonia (68). Nineteen percent of black men even owned a home. Free blacks on the Eastern Shore significantly had both family and given names (69). These names allowed the family co nnections to be made. In New Netherland, many black men were free and faced very little discrimination. They were even able to indenture a white female servant for one year (71).The authors are very convincing I do believe that it was possible for blacks and whites to live together in harmony. In the text it shows how blacks and whites shared legal rights in the seventeenth century, this helped African Americans gained rights in the mid 1900s. It caused blacks to argue why they couldnt have freedom when there is evidence of previous peaceful equality (20).Another reason that I believe harmony was possible between blacks and whites are that they could live together as neighbors. In the seventieth century blacks could own land and had the ability to free market. They could buy and sell goods for profit they could even trade with the white Americans for certain resources needed to be successful. African Americans had the ability to own their own slaves just like white men. Land owning African Americans had to pay taxes just like everyone else owning land.The text shows how African Americans in the seventeenth century had the rights to living free among whites where segregation was not a factor in everyday life. The title of the book Myne Owne Ground federal agency that if you are not allowed to go after liberty and freedom or own land, then freedom isnt really free. It means in tack to be truly equal, you must own your own land. Giving African Americans the freedom to be successful played a huge role in freedoms given today. Without the study of the equal rights given to blacks in the seventieth century, todays freedoms given to all would not have been as accepting in modern day culture.

About The Penan Tribe Architecture Essay

The reappraisal that I would wish to do among the 5 folks that acted by the Bruce Parry is the Penan folk. First of all, I would wish to present briefly closely the character of Bruce Parry. Bruce Parry is an militant that venture into the most distant country of Sarawak province in Malayan Borneo. He believes that the lone ways to cognize more than about the civilization anthropology and cognition for a folk is to hold a participant observation in his fieldwork. Participant observations mean that life within a given civilization for an drawn-out period of clip, and take portion in its cultural day-to-day life in all its profusion and diverseness.The Penan is a sprightly native that roved on the land of Sarawak Borneo and some other parts on Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan. Nowadays, the figure of Penan had officially stated approximate to 10,000 people and around 350-500 of them be wandering that scattered over Ulu Baram, Limbang, Tutoh and Lawas of Sarawak.( Figures retrieved from h ypertext transfer protocol //www.survival-international.org )The present Penans are consisted with settled, semi-nomadic and entire unsettled communities that to the full depend on the wood merchandises. In Penan society, the indigens are super developed in an classless society and small gender division. It means that the societal stratification among the heavy(p) male and adult females are about equal. For case, the adult male and adult females shared most of the jobs among them. Such as, garnering the tone merchandise and extracted sago from the sago palm, but they are still some portion of jobs that dominated by male, for illustration, runing in the wood.Penan is a group of native that practiced the rite of Mo yearn which means that neer take more than necessary. The bulk of the Penan indigens are work as mobile hunter-gatherers. The mobile Penan normally moves in group that consisted about 40 people included kids and old people. They do non stayed for a long clip in a a musing topographic point. The period of clip that they stay is depend on the resources at the topographic point that they stayed and when the resources became someer, they willing take other suited topographic points and travel once more.The mobile Penan indigen that lived in the wood was really much depending on their traditional diet-Sago that amylum from the Sago thenar. Once, the Sago thenars are matured and to the full grown, the sago thenar guides will be cut down. The leader of the roll uping sago thenar will do certain an sum of sago starched is adequate for each rest home and kept adequately for their supply. afterwards that no more sago thenar will be chop down until they are ran out of nutrient. Besides that, the Penan indigen besides preys on wild urge beings the like wild Sus scrofas, cower cervid and monkeys. The hunting watchs Hunt by utilizing a blowtube, do with the Belian wood and carved out with a bone drill. The toxicant flit that they apply are made f rom the sago thenar s tree bark and on its tip the Penan dipped it with sort of powerful toxicant latex that extracted from a tree from the wood. However, the Penan indigens besides cultivate the planting of Paddy and domestic animate being genteelness for their ain nutrients non for gross revenues.Furthermore, I would wish to communication briefly about the Penan civilization alteration, the mobile Penan move in groups and they have their ain kin districts, the groups are consisted of a household of five or 6 members and some household even consisted of 30 people. The mobile Penan will go forth their oldselap( huts ) and travel to another sphere of wood when their sago supplies are exhausted. The Penan indigens ownerships are few and everything is carried in simple with a strong back packs made from Calamus rotang. Selap are made from thick poles tied together with rattan strips. Every household has one hut for life and a smaller 1 for kiping. The bulk of the roofs are tarpaul ins and there are rarely roof made by big thenar leaves. The floors are four pess off the land and above a get upplace of clay are two wooden racks for hive awaying cookery equipment and drying fire wood.In the facet of stuff civilizations, merely Penan seniors frock in anything coming traditional frock, with chawats ( loin fabrics ) , bands on their legs and carpuss and big holes in their ear lobes. Presents, the Penan indigens are doing the tattoos by themselves which is about like prison tattoos. Merely few Penan now go in barefoot, most of them are have oning cheap, plastic football boots with rounded macho-man to protect their pess.In add-on, I would wish to discourse about the arms that are used for runing. For illustration the Penan s blowtubes, which calledkeleput, are about 6 pess long and made from one solid piece of Fe wood in approximately 2 hebdomads. The hole is made utilizing a long metal streak with a screwdriver-like tip, which is merely driven into the wood a nd turned, over and over, so construct a gigue for it. Then, addicted to the terminal of the blowtube is a metal spear caput, attached with Calamus rotang and rubber-like rosin. This is used for killing big hurt animate beings and offers protection from wild animals. The much shorter blowtubes are sometimes made for runing at close context in dense wood. Another arm used for hunting is poison darts. The procedure of doing the Penan toxicant darts is cutting off the bark of the tajem tree to draw in out milklike latex that is warmed over a fire to bring forth the toxicant. Tajem interferes with the operation of the bosom, doing deadly arrhythmias. Blowpipe darts are made from palm fronds with a lightweight stopper to do an airtight seal. Darts with metal tips ( cut from Sn tins ) are used for large game like cervid and bearded hog, whilst those for little game are merely sharpened before being dipped into toxicant. The last arm used by Penan huntsmans is knives. The Penan huntsman s are transporting two knives. The first knife is called apoeh, is big and machete-like and used often. The 2nd knife is called darhad which is much smaller knife and is used for cutting meat, paring blowtube darts and all right work. Both knives are carried close together in separate sheathes, sometimes wooden, now frequently plastic.Besides that, in the facet of trustfulness believe for Penan indigen, the Penan have been change overing their animism belief to Christianity since in the 1930s. Harmonizing to the functionalist Emile Durkheim, faith is a incorporate system of beliefs and patterns relative to sacred things, that is to state, things set apart and out beliefs and pattern which unite into one individual moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them. ( Robert Van Krieken, Daphne Habibis, Philip Smith, Brett Hutchins, Michael Haralambos, Martin Holborn, 2006, page 390 ) However, some of the Penan indigen still holding a strong believe in myths and liquors . The Penan leaders still pattern the rite of blood treaties with neighbouring folk when making the political understanding. The rite of blood treaties was believed that anyone who breach of this pact will do to purging of blood and a violent decease.Furthermore, in the facet of economic for Penan native, most of the Penan are work as a huntsman gatherer in wood and selling the chief resource of the wood which is sago. The economic system can be defined as a system of production, distribution, and ingestion of resources, including the cultural belief that supports economic procedures. During the colonial times, the British authorities will set up trading missions calledtamunear to the woods of the Penan to offered forest merchandises likedammar( now used in eco-paints ) , rattan mats and baskets, rhino horn,gaharuwood ( or eagle-wood ) , wild gum elastic, monkey bilestones ( for Chinese medical specialty ) , measures of hornbills, and cervid antlers. These points were traded for fa bricating goods like knives, cooking pots and scatterguns. None of these forest merchandises are now abundant, but many Penans will sell surplus meat to logging cantonments. The Penan indigen besides sold the high quality gaharu from gaharu tree but that can take old ages to roll up. Gaharu is used as incense, for medicative and spiritual intents, and as a aroma in the Middle vitamin E states. For the division of labour for Penan, the adult male will ever travel for hunting and the adult female will by and large garner the sago from the sago thenar tree and make the house chores. The form of economic subsistence for Penan indigen is scrounging. They are scrounging in groups for wild workss and runing for wild animate beings like wild Sus scrofas and mouse cervid.

Cosplay

Cosplay Sub socialization Rachael Driver Bowling Green Technical College Abstract This paper will be discussing the cosplay, or costume play, subculture. In this paper, it will also go over who makes up this particular subculture, what it takes to be a cosplayer, what this subculture does for society, how society sees those who participate in it, how and when it came to be, some(a) storied cosplay costumes, and what this subculture provides for those who take part in it. Keywords Cosplay, Costume Play, Sociology, Subculture, Japanese cosplay, costumes, cosplay conventionsCosplay, short for costume play, is a type of performance art in which the participants make and fall in costumes and accessories to represent a specific character or idea. This is also considered a type of role playing. Favorite sources for these costumes include manga , anime, books, TV shows, comic books, video games, and films. In cosplay, even inanimate objects are given life and personalities, and it is not unusual to see genders switched, with women playing male characters and vice versa. This is called crossplaying.There is also a group of cosplay culture centered around sex appeal, with cosplayers specifically choosing characters that are known for their attractiveness and/or revealing costumes. Often cosplay is most remembered for this because of all of the skimpy female outfits, only if really there is so much more to cosplay than that. (Cosplay, 2012) Cosplay has been called many things over the years a hobby, an art form, a youth clique, a fashion movement, a social event, a designing process, a detachment from society, or even just something to do out of pure boredom.All of these things can be considered true, in some way, depending on the situation, but the essence of cosplay is that it is a form of expression for young deal in the subcultures that practice it. (What is Cosplay? Understanding Cosplay and its many definitions. , 2007) The cosplayers purpose for back as a c ertain character may be sorted into one of three categories, or a mixture of the three. The first is to show adoration for a character, or they pick one that they have matching personalities with, hoping to become that character or at least close to it.A few major characteristics of this type of cosplayer may be an enthusiastic attitude and the tendency to pay less trouble to detail and quality. Such cosplayers are also known to criticize other cosplayers for not having a full knowledge of their character, or not also adopting character personality. This can cause a bevy of conflict between cosplayers. (Cosplay, 2012) The second is those people who enjoy the attention that cosplaying a certain character brings. They have to dress as the most popular character so they can have the most attention.Within the cultures of anime and manga specifically, there is a certain level of dishonor that is attached to cosplayers with this type of attitude. Such cosplayers are usually characteriz ed by paying close attention to detail in their garments and their choice of popular characters. They are also noted by participation in cosplay competitions. (Cosplay, 2012) The third category is those who enjoy the creative process, and the find of personal obtainment upon completion of the costume and character details.Such people are more in all likelihood to have a greater budget dedicated to the costumes, more complicated and better quality outfits with access to more materials. They are also more likely to engage with professional photographers and cosplay photographers to take high quality images of the cosplayer in their garment posing as the character. (Cosplay, 2012) Some of the most popular shows to dress as are Harry Potter, Star Wars, Star Trek, Avatar, Sailor Moon, and even the boisterous Horror Picture Show. Top films and television shows that inspire cosplay, 2010) The most famous and worlds largest cosplay convention is Comiket, also known as Comic Market, is s till held in the Odaiba theater of Tokyo, Japan bi-annually. (Cosplay in Japan, 2011) A few others are The San Diego Comic-Con. The biggest event in the UK is the London MCM Expo at ExCeL London, while the biggest event in atomic number 63 takes place in France at Japan Expo in Paris, with an attendance of over 200,000 in 2012. (Cosplay, 2012) Some costumes can take months to even years to create.A lot of people will go through so much just to look like their chosen character. They will do crazy make up elaborate make up. They will buy wigs to match the charcters hair, or simply dye their own and style it the exact same way. Some characters have tattoos, which some cosplayers will have done to themselves. However, others will simply draw their own on rather than having the tattoo permanently. In every anime comic or show that you see, everyone has the signature anime eyes, the large, round, oddly colored eyes.Cosplayers who want the look just right will actually purchase contacts t o help them achieve this unique animated look. Some cosplayers choose to hire a cosplay photographer to take high quality images of them in their costumes posing as the character. This is most likely to take place in a setting relevant to the characters origin, such as churches, parks, forests, water features and abandoned/run-down sites. Such cosplayers are likely to stage their work online, on blogs or artist websites. They may also choose to sell such images or print the images as postcards and give them as gifts. Cosplay, 2012) When at a cosplay convention, cosplayers tend to carry pictures of the character they are mimicking with them. Some societies see cosplay as unusual, but when you really think about it, is it that odd? People dressing up as something or someone they love, getting unitedly with people who have a common interest in these things, and bringing many nations together at these conventions. Works Cited What is Cosplay? Understanding Cosplay and its many definit ions. (2007). Retrieved september 26, 2012, from thecosplayproject. om http//www. thecosplayproject. com/what-is-cosplay. html Top films and television shows that inspire cosplay. (2010, August 31). Retrieved family line 26, 2012, from citypages. com http//blogs. citypages. com/dressingroom/2010/08/top_films_and_t. php? page=2 Cosplay in Japan. (2011, Nember 15). Retrieved September 26, 2012, from allinjapan. org http//www. allinjapan. org/cosplay-in-japan/ Cosplay. (2012, september 24). Retrieved september 24, 2012, from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cosplay

Book Review Malcolm X

Book Review Terrills Malcolm X Inventing Radical Judgment Terrill, Robert. Malcolm X inventing radical judgment. East Lansing Michigan State University Press, 2004. Print. When saying the name Malcolm X many things come to mind extremist, violence, racists, but usually non motivational speaker. Catalytic is defined as increasing a chemical reaction rate, Terrill practises this term to describe Malcolm X s cajolery style that left him a highly noted public figure. So why was he master(prenominal)? Why is Malcolm X a must read for high school and college students? In his sustain Malcolm X Inventing Radical Judgment Robert E.Terrill makes the argument through come out his arrest that though Malcolm X did not leave anything, or change laws, and his speeches were neer documented correctly, but that it was his way of using rhetoric to his advantage he began to help people commemorate critically and form their own opinion. Terrills term catalytic rhetoric refers to how Malcolm X w ould present a speech in a way that would make people think and come to the conclusion and interoperate what was being said and then the audience would take action as they axiom necessity to fix the problems mostly about race in their communities.His speeches were not only int give the axeed for Afri cannister Americans, but also Whites who were equally important to expect for a change withal if it meant going against the Nation of Islam. Malcolm Xs public speaking, according to Terrill, is a model of radical criticism, and we can satisfy his speeches not simply as the means to liberate, anti-racist end but as a theory of rhetorical action (p. 17). Terrill mostly discusses the progressively much critical translator that Malcolm X launched against the Nation of Islams principle in his last stratum.During this period, Malcolm X asked African Americans to hold tight to both the ballot and the bullet, employing each strategically and not becoming ideologically reliant upon eith er one. At the same time, Terrill maintains that this rhetoric forged a sense of shargond identity and purpose among his African-American listeners that allowed them to record their critical hesitancys into modes of action. Most know that joining the Nation of Islam Malcolm X turned past from a life of crime and spent more time and aptitude on the teachings of Muhammad, this is where he formed his platform on most racial issues and his desire to mpower African Americans to better themselves and their futures. However, Terrill makes the argument that the Nation of Islam prevented him from speaking out, and to more divers(a) people which is what Malcolm wanted, calling Elijah Muhammads teaching rambling apocalyptic visions (p. 105). While Terrills primary argument centers on Malcolm X in his last year of life without the Nation of Islam, he places this material in context by comparing it to Malcolm Xs rhetoric within the Nation of Islam and otherwise speeches.This I found to be one of the more interesting parts of the keep back looking at well-known African American authors and comparing their work with Malcolm Xs style. Terrill uses the approach of looking at African American prophetic speakers from the past to examine the way they influenced Malcolms speeches. He looks at four speakers that use prophetic protest Frederick Douglasss What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? W. E. B. Du Boiss the Conservation of Races, David walkers Appeal, and The Confessions of Nat Turner (p. 62).He compares Douglas with Malcolm by showing how they both talked to the tweed community and understood the importance in changing the way that they thought, since they were the majority and the most effective way of change is having more people on your perspective (p. 62). This collection of speeches Terrill calls the prophetic speech a key method of African-American protest rhetoric. done a breakdown of prophetic texts by Frederick Douglass, W. E. B. DuBois, David Walker a nd Nat Turner, Terrill distinguishes among the jeremiad (a long complaint) and the apocalyptic style (unrevealing of future) of prophetic communication.While the jeremiad (shown in this text by DuBois and Douglass) retains faith in the possibility for American social change, apocalyptic texts (shown by Walker and Turner) claim that only a radical break will bring about the golden age anticipated by religious prophesy. Terrill acknowledges the crucial post that the prophetic tradition has played in African-American organizations and texts and locates the Nation of Islams rhetoric within this tradition.Such rhetoric contributed to the reputation and steadiness of the Nation of Islam and the Universal pitch blackness Improvement Association (UNIA) as radical organizations, as it offered consistent projects for identification and action. Prophetic rhetoric model was challenging approach for it was often times puzzling and do it hard to understand for listeners and readers. The Natio n of Islam taught participants to see straight references to Elijah Muhammad and the African-American struggle in the Bible just like how Frederick Douglass asked his readers to interpret the Constitution as an anti-slavery document.Terrill ultimately sees such models of reading to harsh not letting the audience come to conclusions by themselves and created too much of an emphasis on God and pre-determined. just while he states early on that he will reject the prophetic tradition for its strictness, Terrill goes on and on about prophetic history for much half of the book. Following an extensive reading of the four texts by Douglass, DuBois, Walker and Turner, Terrill traces the prophetic tradition until he reaches the Nation of Islam (NOI).Painting a bad picture of the country Terrill says that the NOI walked the line between reformism and revolutionary sentiment by combining socially conservative and politically disengaged action with an apocalyptic vision of the American future (p. 78). During his just about rant about the Nation of Islam he tends to over look the clear fact that Malcolm X is a highly recognized public figure because of that organization. Through out the book his undertone leaves almost a bad taste in your mouth as Terrill speaks so poor of the Nation.Terrill proceeds to outline Malcolm Xs speech, from a strict association with the Nation of Islams tradition of prophetic with strict rhetoric, then moving toward a gradually more idle dialogue with concrete politics and social critiques. Through close readings Terrill identifies the beginnings of Malcolm Xs afterward-rhetorical review in his early speeches, while maintaining that only in his lowest year did Malcolm X move productively beyond prophecy and begin to model radical judgment. The year before Malcolm X died Terrill argues he worked to break his audiences drop off from the confines of the dominant white culture while at the same time helping them avoid becoming trapped within an other clan of restrictions (p. 110). Terrill states several times, the year before Malcolm Xs death that was the time when he gave the most influential messages and employ his rhetorical skills to fulfill his goals, for African Americans to stupefy rhetoricians themselves. This being said it is the purpose of this book to prove that Malcolm X was trying (through his speeches) to teach African Americans to think for themselves.After doing so to maintain their freedom it becomes critical that they do not fall into like minded thinking again especially with white people, but by doing that they will fall back in to the repression they were in. Malcolm Xs need to communicate more effectively with his audience was a major factor in his split with the Nation of Islam and one that has been basically cut by scholars. Terrill sees Malcolm X as first and foremost a public speaker, and the Nation of Islams prophetic rhetoric ultimately became confining in his crusade to address political a s well as religious matters.After his break with the NOI, Terrill notes an increasingly individualist style in Malcolm Xs rhetoric. Disillusioned by the hierarchical structure of the NOI, he rejected its rigid narrative structures and began to preach radical flexibility. (142) In doing so Terrill argues, Malcolm X aloud his audience to develop a trickster consciousness, questioning both hegemonic and extremely cruel anti-hegemonic doctrines (p. 171). He repeats many times that African Americans should become more critical of the world around them, and question things to better themselves.That African Americans should not support an action without knowing all of the details and judging it for themselves. This is the major key role that Malcolm wanted his listeners to understand that if they can think more critically about the world around them than they can become more independent from disheartening world. While stating multiple times that Malcolm X desires his listeners to be indiv idual thinkers, Terrill towards the end of his book turns away from the intense independence often connected with trickster-style questioning of doctrines.Combined identity remained important to Malcolm Xs project. correspond to Terrill, Malcolm Xs late speeches were a form of constitutive rhetoric that helped define the audience as part of a collectivity. The switching of the ideas towards the end of the book tend to be a bit confusing since through out the book the main idea is independent thinking then switches back to bodied thinking. This idea of radical critique did not appear simply in such obvious statements.Terrill argues that it was shown in Malcolm Xs rhetorical choices, as when Malcolm criticized his disconsolate audience members for unthinkingly supporting a Democratic Party that had done little to advance the civil rights movement. rather, he urged them to use their voting power more strategically Dont register and vote register He meant this in a way that he bel ieved that most of the politicians in that day were not looking out for the black man so do not vote for them just because you can vote, because no matter who you vote for none of them are concerned with the black man.As he broke down the social definitions that trapped his African-American audience members, the inner rationality of his rhetoric allowed them to redefine themselves as members of an sharply African community. This delicate relationship between individualism and collectivism, Terrill argues permitted listeners to continue their own perspectives of radical judgment, but it did not cause stable activist organizations. Malcolm Xs Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) and the Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI) never achieved the stability of more traditional, hierarchical organizations such as the NOI.These were programs that Malcolm X started after leaving the Nation of Islam. The post-Malcolm histories of his OAAU and MMI make as concrete reminders, Terrill tells us, that this sort of radical critique cannot easily sustain a traditionally defined political movement. (185) Terrills investigation is useful in its focus on how Malcolm Xs rhetoric fully affected his audience. There is no uncertainty that Malcolm Xs words formed his audiences perceptive of themselves and of the political environment. It opened them up to tools of critical investigation.Terrill sees this effect as Malcolm Xs major solid involvement to the essential anti-racist struggle. move off by the hierarchical organization and closed narratives of the Nation of Islam, Terrill says that Malcolm Xs post-NOI language does not interpret easily into ordered political movements. Instead it creates a community of important individuals who cannot be brought in by the limitations of hierarchical political movements, though they may assemble momentarily coherent texts, motives, and identities. (191) This part of the book Terrill comes close to allowing Malcolm X to reduce into a poststructu ralist realm of open.Taken up from all blocked ideologies, Malcolm X and his listeners can apparently act only temporarily, in impermanent moments of shared action. Terrill is absolutely right to recognize Malcolm Xs desire to question and revise structures of thinking, but he underestimates the potential for solid political group, even hierarchical organization, that continue in Malcolm Xs system of radical judgment. Even though Terrill continues to state that Malcolm Xs rhetoric instructs listeners to stay away from giving into hierarchical structures, he restricts his own study of organizational forms influenced by Malcolms adical conclusion to Malcolm Xs own organizations that he started. The MMI and the OAAU, on the other hand were by no means the only organizations that relied greatly upon the rhetoric of Malcolm Xs last year. Neither did Malcolm himself analysis his own organizations as the necessary leaders in the movement. He saw his organizations as structures planned to increase a principles, and he strained the potential for partnership work involving similarly organizations.Even though Malcolm might have been to most extent only seen other organizations to their face value, we might look to other organized embodiment of sable independence to see his observation come alive. We may see the different gathering of organizations frequently known as the Black Power movement as an over apply organizational personification of Malcolm Xs radical judgment. Malcolm Xs everything has been employ name, image and words have been adopted by numerous Black Power groups and continue to be adopted.But we might also read Malcolms iconic status as the celebration and enactment of his radical judgment. A diversity of organizations acted out Malcolm Xs rhetorical tradition of critique and fighting through their personal organizational structures and existing ideologies. The Black Panther Party used heavily Malcolm Xs support for self-defense much like how Malcol m used Douglass and others, his perseverance upon the need for instant survival programs, and his argument that African Americans should think strategically about using both the ballot and the bullet.The Panthers rebellious principles and militaristic party authority might turn Terrill off, but never the less they were a clear example of an organizational understanding of many of Malcolm Xs ideas. Panthers enacted the critical judgment that Terrill sees in Malcolm Xs rhetoric without rejecting all forms of organizational hierarchy or denying their dependence on ideology. Terrill shows Malcolm X as a in force(p) social critic who gave his audience the tools they needed to resist.He offers a central idea when he shows us Malcolm Xs speeches as resourceful models of evaluation that do not basically teach facts. Malcolm Xs rhetoric encourages listeners to build such critiques independently. Malcolms rhetoric was not simply a means of group classification but a movement to joint action . Through out this whole book Terrill makes very strong comparisons with other well-known African American authors. Doing this really helps readers connect more and gain a better understanding to whatTerrill was trying to prove through out the book. To me the book was a bit lengthy in some parts where in others it could of used more emphasis on. The book had a simple topic and that was Malcolm X style of rhetoric and how his speeches helped his listeners become more critical analyzers. But at the end of the book Terrill points out how Malcolm ditches his platform and persuades his followers to become more collective, it made the book seem inconsistent and lost most of its argument.This book would be beneficial for people to read because it does show how Malcolm Xs rhetorical style was different than most. Only argument to be made is that the later half of the book contradicts the rest of what Terrill was trying to prove and therefore made the book illegitimate. The good is that Terr ill broke the book down into 3 different sub sections, which also made the book easier to read. Again also the side-to-side comparisons helped Terrill make a concrete argument. Overall a good book but the lengthiness in some parts made it a little boring.

Hudson River: a Detailed and Comprehensive Geological History

Contents Introduction.. 2 Hudson River Formation.. 5 Hudson canyon12 Glacial History.. 14 Conclusion17 Bibliography18 Maps & Diagrams.. . 19 Hudson canyon.. 19 Geological Processes. 2 1Page Introduction In 1872, a naturalist and surveyor by the name of Verplanck Colvin found the source of the Hudson River. It is a baseborn pond on the atomic number 16most channelise jacketern slope of Mt. Marcy, the highest peak in the Adirondacks, called Lake dash of the Clouds. So little is Lake Tear of the Clouds that if no peeing was to feed it for s even off days it would be reduced to just an empty landmark. Neverthe slight, the Hudson starts right in its urines. maven could say the Hudson River is divided into two distinct sections differentiated by geology and appearance.The first section winds its room finished the Adirondack Mountains spanning 166 miles from Lake Tear of the Clouds to the Federal Dam in Troy. This section is un-navigable by boat and in some confides somewhat r apid. The second section, which is quite different from the first, starts at the Federal Dam and runs for 149 miles through the rolling hills all the vogue to the Narrows between Brooklyn and Staten Island. Back up north at Lake Tear of the Clouds is fed by natural springs and everyplacespill from the sheer steepness of Mt. Marcy and other streams winding down from the high peaks of the Adirondacks.Through verboten the squargon Adirondack masses range, the watershed drains and put outside(a) flood from 3,400 foot peaks into the lowlands less than 410 feet above sea level. From Lake Tear of the Clouds in the place of a mile the river drops 1,000 feet down a deep trench to join the Opalescent River1. A bit to a greater extent sulphur, the Mohawk River drains such(prenominal) of the runoff from central on-line(prenominal) York into the Hudson. In f coiffure, over half of the Hudson Rivers water volume comes from the Mohawk, and without it, the Hudson would be practically non-existent.Further confederationern of Albany tri unlessaries flow westward to the Hudson from the Taconic Mountains and atomic number 99ward from the Catskills. Still further south the tributaries for the Hudson begin to appear rectangular, nasty to following the trend of the faults and 1 The Opalescent River is not a separate river from the Hudson but merely a section named by old Native the Statesn tribes. 2Page ridges that run northeast to southwest of the river while other tributaries join at right angles to the faults a immense the joint planes.At this commove in its manner, the river begins to deplete its original bedrock gorge formed gazillions of socio-economic classs past, flowing over rock l brim rapids and the plush- like cobble point blackballs2 that atomic number 18 in truth common from Mt. Marcy to Glens travel, until it is doweryially blocked by skunks. It is here that the river makes a frizzly turn to the east and flows through the Luzerne Moun tain gorge in western cutting York and accordingly emerges quickly onto glacial lake repositorys deposited in the Pliocene Glaciation and forms a very broad, or so meandering path on the lowlands (supported by shale) for the just about 130 miles to Newburgh.South of Newburgh the river cuts of laterally through the hard microcrystalline rocks of the Hudson Highlands, shifting congest and forth in its valley (almost like a cradle) until it emerges from the highlands and starts to exhibit fjord like characteristics within the towering rock walls virtually it. The rivers course thusly slightly curves in front of the Palisades escarpment3, which towers to a greater extent than 328 feet above the waters surface. At the Narrows the Hudson br distributivelyes its final barrier, the terminal moraine4 of the last glaciation (more on this in the Glacial History section) forrader it reaches the Atlantic Ocean.At the Atlantic (although tidal) the Hudson be guides as any other river would and deposits its bed load (sediments carried by the river) and some of the fine-grained hang load (basically fine grained sand and dirt floating in the water) into the form of sandbars. all over millions of long clock, these use up contributed to construction up many islands including Staten Island, Hoffman Island, Swinburne Island and many others. The very low slope of the Hudson plays a great role in the amount of discharge and island buildup, too, as it l whizz(prenominal) rises about 0. 4 march ones per mile for the last 150 miles of the rivers path. To take place some perspective, the Mississippi river rises more or less 6 inches per mile during its course, and discharges about 700 million tons of sediment per course of instruction into the Gulf of Mexico 2 Coarse cobble point bars are essentially pointed cobble that has been piled into bar like formations. These formations are generally formed when sediments carrying cobble leave it substructure. 3 Ground forme d into a steep slope as break apart of fortification. Moraine is a word used to describe the earth, stones and debris a glacier deposits. Terminal describes that these items were deposited where the glaciers maximum extent was, in this case Long Island. 3Page and its mouth is about a ? -mile wide. The Hudson River discharges about 175 million tons of sediment per year and its mouth is about the homogeneous width at a ? mile. With a 2 inch increase in slope geologists forestall the discharge rate of the Hudson would spike up to about 450 million tons per year and the mouth of it would close up to about 250 wide.This would place Manhattan semiaquatic and greatly limit boat traffic as well as make Long Island more of a true island separated from land by at least 3 miles or so of water5. And so, the geography of the Hudson River today ends here in Manhattan, but the geology of what lies underneath is a lot more important. Continue cultivation if you must, and dwell into a mystery of age and a push-down store of pushing and pulling. 5 Do not worry about this happening like a shot though because the rivers boilers suit slope has not dislodged more than a cen sequenceter in the last couple megabyte long time and shows no signs of speeding up. 4Page Hudson River FormationThe Geology of the Hudson River is complex. Billions of historic period of folding, pushing, pulling, separating, and miserable have formed, deformed and reformed the Hudson River valley into what it is today, a giant palimpsest6, a great parchment on which the hand of nature has written and rewritten her gossamer signature for more than a one million million years7. In the next section, I am handout to attempt to condense over a billion years worth of Geologic History into less than ten pages. Despite complex k immediatelyledge and strange words it is a simple story of time and rocks, moving and changing the formation of the Hudson River and its valley.The Hudsons geologic personal ity very very much reflects its structure and the mixed bags do on it, underneath it and all nigh it from the glacial period glaciations8 . The bedrock foundation of the Hudson was established in the space of three oreganys (mountain expression periods) beginning over a billion years ago. These mountain- edif chicken feed episodes re-triggered long intervals of subway erosion and periodic submersion by the epiContinental seas (or oceans) to alleviate start forming the Hudson River Valley. At a point much later in this story, glacial erosion reshaped the landscape of the HRV into what it appears as today.The first major mountain building episode, the Grenville Orogeny began about 1. 2 billion years ago. It was one of the biggest Oreganys and affected a broad neck of the woods along the microscope slide of what was Ancient wedlock America, from the northeast waters of Canada to northwestern Mexico. The mountains created by the Grenville Orogeny were most possible as tall as or taller than the Himalayas and were driven to these heights by a collision of Laurentia (Ancient N. America) and Gondwana (Africa) in which Gondwana overrode Laurentia. The deep burial of Laurentia resulted in the first 7 Written upon, or engraved on more than in one case. The Hudson A History, Chapter 1 The River and the Land, pg. 10 8 A period of ice buildup to form glaciers, or the act of glaciation. 5Page metamorphism, partial melting of rock and the separation of the light and dark minerals found in the Adirondack gneisses9. Many hundred thousand of years later in the Proterozoic period as the continents periodically moved, basaltic volcanic rocks merged into the mountains cutting the anorthosites10 and gneisses laterally across.These gneisses are or so one billion years old, while the Highland gneisses may be a bit older. The Fordham gneisses are the youngest and can be go out to just under a billion years old. Over the millions of years, long episodes of erosion on the G renville Mountains and unalterable lifting of the crust have brought it to the surface. Later in the Proterozoic period, erosion of this crust formed and provided a buddy-buddy-skulledset source of sedimentary deposits that partially submerged the upland world of coastal Laurentia (presently this is the area south of and correspond to the Appalachian Mountains).These deposits are now found mostly in the Appalachians, with almost all of them have been remote from the Hudson valley, leaving hard rock and clay for the Hudson River to rest on. In the early Paleozoic, the sand and gravel that was eroded from the mountains during the Proterozoic period became basal sandstone and conglomerate11, which is more commonly greet as the Potsdam Sandstone in northern NY and the land Quartzite that is prized throughout the Hudson Highlands.As the EpiContinental sea inundated this (once) mountainous region the sandstone and Lower Quartzite were hide under a thick cover of devil dog limes tone and shale, which was laid down in an elongated trough that formed on the continental ledge where mountains had once been. The limestone was mostly deposited on the shallow edges of the trough while the shale solidified from the mud carried into the deeper inshore part of the trough. The solidified shale then created the bedrock between Glens Falls and the Highlands. 9Coarse, grained metamorphic rock composed of quartz, feldspar and mica. An igneous rock made up largely of soda-lime feldspar. 11 Rock composed of rounded fragments of mingled rocks cemented together in a mass of hardened clay and sand, like a composite. 10 6Page In the Late Cambrian period,12 Laurentia once over over again collided, but this time with the ancestral amount of money of Europe, Baltica and a large fragment of what is thought to be the continental crust known as Avalonia. This started the mountain building period known as the Taconic Orogeny, which lasted throughout the Ordovician Period.The Ta conic Orogeny in any case resulted in the new-fashioned supercontinent Laurasia. While much of the activity involving this collision took place well to the east it also affected the HRV. Island arc volcanic structures such as the Cortlandt Complex have been found in the Hudson Highlands. To the pairing and West in the mid-Hudson Valley, the sedimentary rocks that were deposited in the early Paleozoic Period were folded (with the trend of the folds and faults already in place) parallel to the southwest to northeast cladding the Appalachians.These folds and faults eventually became some of the paths of the HRV tributaries. Closer to the coast than these faults, thin sheets of rock were pushed several(prenominal) dozen miles west. This event is known as the Taconic Thrust and took place in the area where today exists the Taconic parkway. Because of this event, the fine-grained shale that was there was crushd (as if we crumple paper) and pushed into the narrow channel of water west of the mountains near present day Croton. Over many years thereafter blocks of limestone into the channel and were merged into a jumble of shale clumps.Today millions of years later the river flows past the western edge of the channel and then cuts into the disorganized deposits of shale as it continues south. As we travel through time, sandstone, limestone, shale and Proterozoic bedrock from the Hudson Highlands became buried as Laurentias coastal beach was subducted13 close to where it and Europes cuticles met. The rocks that met each other from each carapace partially melted and transformed into more gneiss, marble and schist14, which was then folded and moved once more to be in alignment 12 00 million years ago Subduction can be expound as the action or work on in plate tectonics of the edge of one crustal plate descending below the edge of another, almost like a controlled earthquake. 14 Schist is a metamorphic crystalline rock that has a closely foliated structure and ca n be split along approximately parallel planes. 13 7Page with the Appalachians. This set the stage for the modern day continental shelf to form, although it would take millions of more years for it to happen. by and by the two plates of Europe and Laurentia collided, there was a sort of thus far in activity about this area.This allowed streams in the lowlands to follow the valleys formed along the fault lines, or on the aristocraticaler marble horizontal surfaces around Manhattan. The oceanic crust borders and the rocks around NYC and to the east more or less contained the streams around Manhattan, while the streams in the lowlands and around our area were free to roam and spread out. After the Taconic Orogeny ended, a long interval of erosion began stripping away the excess crust as the new continent (modern atomic number 7 America, or Laurasia) was very slowly lifted by the compression of the plates.As the upland area was eroded away the epicontinental sea gradually filled the Hudson Valley region from the low lying land of the coastal margin all the way west nearly three-quarters of the way to Pittsburgh. Later during the Silurian and into the early Devonian period shallow seas cover the area and left behind calcium carbonate sediments making the soil very rich. At around the same time rivers formed and flowed from the uplands carrying major amounts of sediment west to the sea to form marine sandstone.While the marine sandstone was existence formed, at the shoreline a large delta15 formed over the junk that the marine sandstone left behind. By the midDevonian period, an alluvial plain16 had reached across much the western Catskill region and the shoreline had shifted slightly west about 15 miles or so. At this time, thousands and thousands of feet of sediment from mid-Paleozoic times were piled up over the Hudson Valley and continental red sandstone (one reason wherefore there is so much sandstone around here) from farther east inland were incorp orated with the gray marine sandstone from the west closer to the coast.The force of all this happening at once overturned the folds that were in place to the northwest (near present day Schunemunk Mountain along the NYS thruway near Highland Mills) exposing the limestone that 15 A Delta is a triangular alluvial plain, usually where a rivers mouth is. A level or lightly sloping flat or a slightly undulating land surface resulting from extensive deposition of alluvial materials by running water 16 8Page was buried slightly underneath the sediment that had accumulated over the years. This marked the end of the Devonian Period, and the start of the Acadian Orogeny.The Acadian Orogeny began as the North American plates started to compress again and lift up the eastern mountain ranges around New England and western Pennsylvania. This Orogeny was also partially caused and associate to the collision that happened between Laurentia and Gondwana that created Laurasia, and most likely, if t his Orogeny had not happened the Hudson River would be a completely different river, and possibly would be connected to the Mississippi River. As the plates began to compress each other again they created volcanic arcs and granite intrusions somewhat east of the Hudson Valley near the coast. just about this time in our little history story the seas started to retreat from the east to west and started to expose the incredibly thick layer of sediment and rocks from the Acadian Mountains all the way to the Catskills. The final compressions dating fend for to the Paleozoic era continents and the Alleghenian Orogeny now ended and the earth came together to form Pangaea. Because of all this land being pushed up, the Epicontinental Sea retreated from the Catskills to the Poconos in Pennsylvania leaving much of New York and New England dry once again.Now above sea level the strata from the Devonian period became subject to erosion for 250 million years. At some point during this time, the drainage patterns shifted and aligned the ancient Hudson River along a NorthSouth line much like it is today. This was the biggest directional change the Hudson ever underwent. As the strata and sediment were worn away from this new path of drainage, it revealed the granite, marble and schist underneath which became the building materials for our modern world.With the Taconic Mountains now more to the east and the Catskill Mountains to the west the Hudson worked its way down deep into the sediment it was on top of leaving behind a hard bedrock base nearly 5,000 feet deep in places17. This created a solid foundation and left the Hudson with a relatively stable path 17 Over the last several million years, and an deoxyephedrine age this has all been filled in and now the Hudson has an sightly depth of 32. 9Page that has not changed tremendously since. The breakup of Pangaea followed soon thereafter and the coastline of North America began to resemble what it is now.At the same time, the Hudson was filling its banks basaltic magmas were merged along the fault lines and into the bedrock forming the Palisades Sill18. After that, compression and buildup of sediment and rock slowly built the Palisades up. Today the part of the Palisades that stands is almost like a canyon above the Newark Basin. The tabular19 Palisades still slope to the west, and the eastern edge forms the escarpment, or border20 21 of rock joined vertically that we recognize today from miles around New York and from the air as we fly to new places and heights.But to learn how, we must travel to another time in this story, the Mesozoic Period. Some time in the late Mesozoic period, igneous rock deposits were moved yet again and placed along a line going Northwest to southwest from Canada to New England lifting the mountains in its path by several hundred feet and in some cases over 1,000 feet. Because, as you might infer, rock takes up space, and as it lifted up the mountains and separated them, i t started to separate North Americas continental plate away from the mid-ocean ridge22 and over a very hot area above the earths layer of magma near where the present day Appalachians exist.This caused what geologists stand for was a shot of magma that melted through that particular part of the plate (which was quite thinner than today) and uplifted the Northern part of the Appalachians. This, in turn reactivated erosion and brought the domed like anorthosites to the surface which is most likely the reason that the Appalachian Mountains are not scraggly and sharp like the Alps, but more rolling with large boulders and open expanses of rock. The Catskills and Adirondacks also experienced lifting, but in a much smaller amount. Almost at the same time as all this shake up was happening, a 18 19Think of this as the palisades foundation. L. Sirkin & H. Bokuniewics The Hudson River Valley Geological History, Landforms, and Resources pg. 17. 20 L. Sirkin & H. Bokuniewics The Hudson Riv er Valley Geological History, Landforms, and Resources page 17 21 Palisade literally means a fence of stakes for defense The Palisades are called the Palisades by Native American Tribes because they helped as defense for them from other tribes. 22 The mid-ocean ridge is a undersea mountain ridge that is where the North American and European plate meet. While this ridge has hardly ever changed, the plates do move.In this case it is the biggest moves it has ever made. 10 P a g e hole began to form from sinkholes on the western slope of Mt. Marcy and soon filled with water. This was Lake Tear of the Clouds. After Lake Tear of the Clouds formed and filled with water, the Newark basin reached its fullest capacity of water and the Hudson began to drive into its flood plain and carve out its gorge in the gneisses of the Highlands of southern New York. This area is now mostly between West Point and Hastings on Hudson, but it continues as a much smaller weaker gorge almost down to Fort Lee .The Hudson was now a true river, but would still undergo massive changes over the next several million years. At this time in the Hudson Rivers history, Long Island did not exist as what it does today. It was a tiny, almost embayment piece of land that was in no way an island. In addition to that, there was no initiation to the Atlantic for the Hudson. At the place where the Hudson empties into the Atlantic at the Narrows was a big solid mass of land. The Hudson by definition was a lake. So, as the Hudson filled up and he water put immense pressure on the piece of landmass blocking it from the Atlantic it began to carve out and widen an outlet. It took only a few hundred years23 for the Hudson to make it to the Atlantic, bringing with it thousands upon thousands of tons of sediment that had piled up in the Newark Basin. This created the new continental shelf to form the coastal plain we see today that stretches for about a hundred miles out to sea from New York, only in that tim e and age it stretched for nearly 425 miles, nearly central to Bermuda.The Hudson now had an outlet, and the waters started moving south digging, and bringing sediment to the mouth building up Long Island a little bit24, as well as separating it from the mainland with what is now the East River. The sea levels around North America also dropped a few centimeters as the waters made their way up the Hudson forming the Hudson River estuary. This raised the Hudsons waters by a few centimeters and created its almost permanent banks that have 23This is an extremely short time in geologic history and greatly shows how much the pressure was on the landmass blocking the Hudson from the Atlantic. 24 Although Long Island did get built up at this time, the majority of it was built up during the last ice age nearly 20,000 years ago. 11 P a g e not changed very much since. Because the sea levels were much lower in that time period the Hudson also began its excavation of the Hudson Canyon with th e help of the of course occurring currents (more on this in the Hudson Canyon section) and more than doubled its length to nearly 895 miles (about 1,440km) long.After nearly 500 million years the Hudson rivers formation had ended and all that was left to change it was its own water wearing away at its bottom and a glaciation that would come in a few million years. Hudson Canyon The Hudson Canyon is possibly the biggest mystery of the Hudson River. How did it form? When exactly did it form? Why did it form? These are all questions geologists and hydrologists ask when looking at it. Most people in fact have neer heard of it. To them the Hudson is a river that starts in the Adirondacks and ends at the narrows.To the few that know of the Hudson Canyon, the Hudson River starts in the Adirondacks and ends nearly 925 miles south halfway to Bermuda right after falling over a half mile down a now underwater canyon and then fanning out and sp discipline to the Atlantic Ocean. There, even th ough underwater it still carries small amounts of the Hudsons freshwater (out to sea), and most geologists still consider it a part of the Hudson. This makes the true length of the river from Lake Tear of the Clouds to the end of the Hudson Canyon 922 miles, more than double of what we consider the Hudson.As explained in the last section (Hudson River Formation) in the late Mesozoic Period the Hudson River broke the land barrier that held it from emptying into the Atlantic. When it broke the barrier it began to carve a new path out to sea towards Bermuda. At some point, it reached the Continental Shelf and dug into it creating a canyon that eventually connected the shelf to the ocean basin, which is about 1. 5-2. 5 miles deep. Technically the canyon begins as a natural channel many miles wide at the mouth of the Hudson in a opinion about 12 feet deep in the rivers bed. It 12 P a g e ontinues then through the Hudson channel and under the Ambrose light25. Soon after the Ambrose ligh t, it reaches the shelf and goes through the real canyon part of it that is called the Hudson Canyon proper. The Hudson Canyon proper is located about 100 miles east of Battery Park city and has walls almost ? mile in height, which can be compared to the Grand Canyon whose cliffs are about 1-1/8 mile deep. The Hudson Canyon is the largest submarine canyon in the United States, partially due to the currents that pass over, and carrying away sediment and rock, thus carving it deeper and deeper.Over the past 30 years since it was discovered, tracking equipment has logged a nearly 12-inch change in its depth and width making the Hudson Canyon also the fastest growing canyon in the Atlantic Ocean. At the same time it is growing wider and deeper, it is also getting closer to the magma underneath and behind the continental shelf. In simple terms, one day in the next couple hundred or thousand years it will break through and magma will come out creating a new island, possibly connecting th e East Coast of the United States with a land pair that extends more than halfway to Bermuda.Many tributaries around the canyon would be raised by the magma, creating a new network of rivers and streams on the land bridge that could host many kinds of wildlife as well as marsh like environments. In addition to this, the Hudson Canyon has large stores of methane hydrates which according to scientists is a very promising clean burning natural energy source, and could help reduce oil consumption. It is a Canyon of great importance to the Hudson River, and also a big speck into the Glacial history surrounding the HRV. 25The Ambrose light is the site of a Light House that ships going into the New York Harbor and other harbors in the area use for navigation purposes. 13 P a g e Glacial History The Glacial History of the Hudson River is probably the one of the most important geological event that happened in the Hudson Valley in the last 50,000 years. Evidence points mostly to the Pleis tocene Glaciation, which was the last and only Glaciation to reach this far south into the United States for the change that happened on the Hudson River since it was originally formed.The topography of the Hudson Valley enabled the ice from the Pleistocene Glaciation to form a Lobate Ice margin26 about 50 miles north what is now Manhattan long island. Around 22,000 years ago the Ice over the Catskills and Taconic uplands thinned, while it thickened in the Hudson Valley and expanded southward closer to the mouth of the Hudson. Scientists today doing Pollen analysis and radiocarbon dating have found that the climate back then right originally, and as the last Ice age started was much warmer than today. As one can expect, warmer conditions meant more plants, and the sea level was much higher than today27.When the climate cooled and the Glaciers expanded south all these trees, plants and debris were ground down and immense pressure pushed them into the ground, almost dissolving them i nto dirt. This not 26 Lobate means resembling of a lobe. In this context it is used to describe the shape of the edge of the Glacier, or its maximum extent which was a short of lobe shape. 27 Evidence shows that the waters might have been as far north Albany. 14 P a g e only made the area much more barren, but also flattened the Adirondacks, and Hudson Highlands down many thousands of feet.The glacier continued to expand 26,000 years ago and merged with smaller glaciers up north to form one big glacier known as the Laurentide Glacier28. This Glacier covered all of Ontario, the St. Lawrence River, Manitoba, Nunavut, and parts of Quebec, as well as the Great lakes down to Chicago where it almost ran parallel to the US/Canada border before dipping slightly down towards present day Manhattan and following the coast of the US up north. At the height of this glaciers advance the ice most likely was more than 1,000 feet thick over the tops of the Appalachians (if you do the math this mean s that it was over 1. miles deep) meaning immense pressure was being placed on everything flattening the landscape. This also meant that because there was so much pressure, and the water of the Hudson never froze 100%29 the Hudsons waters literally pushed the earth and carved the floor of the Hudson to a depth similar that of what it was before it broke its barrier at the Narrows. 30 The dirt being compressed turned back into soft metamorphic rock, and created marble where none existed near Warrensburg.A few miles south at Glens Falls the Ice naturally deepened because of the drop in elevation and gained momentum31 carving out the fjord previously made even bigger, which created assault King, Beacon and Bear Mountain. All this rock carved out of the Fjord eventually made its way south where it was dumped over Manhattan and Long Island, somewhat accounting for all the Limestone and shale and schist around that area. At this time, the Hudson Canyon was also carved out by the glacial ice melt flowing through it with rocks and debris and became much deeper and wider.When the Laurentide glacier made it to the Narrows its front stopped moving beforehand, but its back kept on moving forward compressing everything together (Like an accordion) and melting a lot of the ice. Why this happened is not really known by Scientists because glaciers can float. This area became the Glaciers dumpster and the Terminal Moraine was officially formed. Long Island was 28 29 Yes, it was named after Laurentia, ancient North America. Meaning the whole time there was a glacier over this area, the Hudson was still flowing but now mostly with ice melt from the glacier itself. 0 Of course this all filled back in as the glacier melted. 31 A glacier is always moving, whether it is 1 foot a year or 1 inch a year. 15 P a g e built up and out to its current state and the Moraine extended west into New island of Jersey and Pennsylvania, carrying with it glacial melt creating many of the glacial lakes in that area such as Lake Hackensack, Glacial Lake Hudson and many others. Clay also being carried was dumped all over the region (mostly on the current Rockland County side) and created a nice thick, slippery layer on which the glacier to slide on.This process of dumping and melting continued for many thousand years and started the recession of Laurentide. In a 2,000 year period from 26,000 years ago to 24,000 years ago Laurentide melted and receded so that all of Long Island, Staten Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and pretty much everything south of present day Hartford Connecticut was ice free. The Ice continued to melt over the next 4,000 years until everything south of Glens Falls was free of ice. The ground, sort of like a sponge when you fill it with water, rose a few meters and went nearly back to its state before the glacier.At Glens falls The glacier stopped for a thousand or so years and slowly melted providing the Hudson valley with a constant stream of fresh gla cial water. Around 19,000 years ago the glacier started to recede from Glens Falls and the melt water created Glacial Lake Albany which continued to grow throughout the next several thousand years as Laurentide receded. At 15,500 years the Climate suddenly got cold and the glacier advanced back south to near Poughkeepsie and created the Wallkill, Poughkeepsie, Red hook, Hyde Park ad Pine Plains moraine.As suddenly as the Climate got cold, it got warm again and by 13,000 years the glacier was receded north of present day Quebec City. When the climate got warmer again the sea levels rose, this time to near Albany, and caused Glacial Lake Albany to drain. For the next couple thousand years as the climate cooled, the Hudson was tidal up to Poughkeepsie and as the Sea retreated. This brought the tides down with it to near Peekskill where it stayed for many thousands of years until around 6,000 years ago it began to go north to nearly 20 miles past Troy32 by 2,000 years ago the sea was at its present place, and the Hudson was in its present 2 The exception to this is the Troy Dam if it wasnt built the Hudson would still be tidal nearly 20 miles north of it. 16 P a g e state. Long Island was as it is now, and the coast was pretty much the same besides what natural erosion as taken away since then. This was the final Glaciation, and the final change to the Hudson River. After nearly 1. 2 billion years, several different Oreganys, Hundreds of changes, 4 different climate changes and a whole lot of pushing and pulling and moving the Hudson River was finished being formed and all it needed was for Henry Hudson to come sailing to name it. ConclusionIf you have gotten this far along into this history story then you will know that the Hudson River didnt just appear, it doesnt formally end at the Narrows between Brooklyn and Staten island and it isnt just a river. It is the culmination of 1. 2 billion years (and counting) of the earth doing its shtick33 on the world we live on. It took 7 different continents to pull this off, and it worked out beautifully creating a river of outmost importance to our lives, lives before us, and lives to come. I like most of you out there reading this paper did not know a thing about the Geology of the Hudson River when I started this project.It probably took me a symmetric amount of time to learn this as it did to create the whole Hudson. Now, after early 3 months of reading words I dont know, looking at diagrams I cant even understand and writing technical terms that I cant pronounce I have learned what it took, and takes to create the Hudson. Like they say, it takes a village to raise a child it took a whole world and 1. 2 billion years to create this river, a river of small nature compared to others around us such as the Nile, or Amazon which are nearly 5 times the length of the Hudson and took a very disproportionate amount of time to create. 3 Piece, or thing in Yiddish 17 P a g e So, as I leave you with this 2 0 page Essay, think about the next time you go to the Hudson and pick up a handful of sand, and know, just know that that handful of sand has been moved around for 1. 2 billion years to end up at your feet. Bibliography L. Sirkin & H. Bokuniewics (2006) The Hudson River Valley Geological History, Landforms and Resources Wikipedia (http//en. wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title=Hudson_Canyon&oldid=453958227) Hudson Canyon Data SIO, NOAA, U. S.Navy NGA, GEBCO (2010) Google Earth United States Geological stack (USGS) (2004) Sea Floor Topography & Backscatter Intensity of the Hudson Canyon Region Offshore of New York & New Jersey (http//pubs. usgs. gov/of/2004/1441/html/interp. html) Phil Stoffer & Paula Messina (2008) Introduction to the Geologic History of the New York colossalht (http//www. geo. hunter. cuny. edu/bight/Geology. html) Phil Stoffer & Paula Messina (2008) The Highlands Region (http//www. geo. hunter. cuny. edu/bight/highland. html) R. G.Wilkins cell (1970) The O ntario Water resources commission Geology of the upper part of the Severn River basin and the Severn River basin lying within the Hudson River Lowlands. Steven H. Sehimmrich Geology of the Hudson Highlands Region (www. environmentalconsortium. org) admittance Genealogy Geology of the Hudson (http//www. accessgenealogy. com/newyork/hudson/geology_hudson. html) Charles Merguerian (2010) Geology 133 Field Trip 18 P a g e Dick Goodman (2013) Geologist in California, gave much information and advice on this project United States Navy Geological Services (2013) Maps, Graphs Bradford B.Van Diver (1985) roadside Geology of New York John F. Shupe (1996) National Geographic Atlas of the World Revised sixth edition Kevin Hile (2009) The Big Book of Answers Tom Lewis (2005) The Hudson A History Maps 19 P a g e The maps presented here on the next couple of pages are all ones used in this essay as reference. They are from many different sources and show many of the things I talked abo ut, visually. Hudson Canyon 20 P a g e 21 P a g e 22 P a g e Geographical Diagrams 23 P a g e 24 P a g e 25 P a g e